Recent advances and obstacles in novel feedstocks and innovative production processes for South Asian biofuel manufacturing

The global rise in energy demand has encouraged nations to seek renewable and locally sourced alternatives to fossil fuels.
India, Malaysia, and Indonesia have each turned to biofuels derived from their own abundant natural resources.
India’s use of pongamia seeds for fatty acid methyl ester production offers a nonedible oil source with strong ignition properties and a favorable calorific value. Malaysia’s use of sago bark and Acacia mangium logs in pellet form produces a sustainable solid biofuel with improved durability and calorific stability. Indonesia’s palm oil industry provides a model for integrated biogas and biohydrogen generation by utilizing both crude palm oil and palm oil mill effluent. Collectively, these advances present the potential of biofuels as key contributors to sustainable energy systems and waste reduction.
Introduction
Modern energy systems are strained by the depletion of fossil fuel reserves and the resulting environmental consequences.
Nations are investing in renewable energy pathways that reduce emissions, make use of existing agricultural and industrial waste streams, and comply with regulatory initiatives, particularly in South Asian countries [1].
Among the most promising approaches is the production of biofuels from natural feedstocks such as nonedible seed oils, agricultural residues, and plant biomass. Biofuels can be produced in liquid, solid, or gaseous forms depending on the conversion process and intended use [2]. India has directed efforts toward biodiesel production from pongamia seeds [3], Malaysia has focused on pelletised biomass from sago bark and Acacia mangium logs [4], and Indonesia has capitalized on palm oil and its by-products for both liquid and gaseous biofuels [5]. Each approach provides insight into the flexibility and adaptability of biofuel production suited to regional resources and economic goals.
India - Pongamia seeds
Having significantly drained fossil fuel reserves, India has turned to biofuels to satiate the demand for energy [6].
Synthesised from vegetable oils, fatty acid methyl esters are a biofuel of increasing interest [7]. An abundant natural resource of interest from growing Australia to India is pongamia, a medium-sized tree with seeds that contain 40% oil [8]. The non-edible oils from pongamia seeds were chosen because of the restrictions many nations have against edible oils being used for biofuel production [9].
To create fatty acid methyl esters, pongamia seeds are first dried to a moisture content of 7.3% to balance oil quality and the efficacy of the extraction and transesterification processes. The seed oil is subsequently extracted through a cold pressing process [9].
The oil is first filtered and treated with heat to remove impurities [10]. Sodium hydroxide-methanol solution is then added to the treated oil.
Through heating and stirring, the glycerol and methyl ester separate from the oil resulting in a crude methyl ester at the top and glycerol at the bottom.
The two compounds are further separated and refined through liquid-liquid extraction to produce refined fatty acid methyl ether [9]. The produced methyl ester can be used as a substitute for or blended with diesel in a direct injection diesel engine.
Fatty acid methyl ether has high standards of purity through production [11]. The rapid ignition capacity of the fuel after ignition, or cetane number, was calculated to be 52.90, and the calorific value of the biofuel is 39.7 MJ kg-1 [9]. When the pongamia oil is mixed with the low viscous fatty acid methyl ester, it is found that even when the viscosity is reduced, the fuel can maintain a higher flash point, resulting in safer ignition, making it superior to many other biofuels [12]. With the Indian government aiming for a 5% target to blend biodiesel by 2030 [6], the fatty acid methyl ether has a lot of potential.
Malaysia - Sago Bark & Acacia Mangium Logs
Malaysia is turning towards biofuels as the country runs into issues regarding supply of raw materials to make fossil fuels.
The country is decreasing fossil fuel usage while minimising waste from biomass by pelletising it [13]. These pellets have higher calorific value stability than traditional solid fuels [13].
Within the environment of Malaysia, sago bark and acacia mangium logs are being recognized as having the greatest potential for a sustainable energy source in the form of pellets due to the abundance of both materials.
Sago is regarded as being unsustainable as a fuel source alone due to the low cellulose and hemicellulose content in the material. Because of this, the material is blended with A. mangium to form a pellet with high calorific value [13].
Researchers from Forest Institute Malaysia conducted measurements of the various blends of the two materials to find the most beneficial combination.
To create these sago bark and A. mangium log pellets, biomass samples of both materials were airdried till the moisture content of the materials decreased by roughly 50-70% and later ground into 2-5mm sized particles.
The mixtures of biomass were pelletised using a lab-scale pelletiser machine with a 100kg h⁻¹ capacity and roller-cylinders.
The materials dropped from the hopper of the machine and were pressed by the rotation of a roller while temperatures rose to 50-60°C. The lignin from the biomass worked as an organic adhesive as the pellets cool [13]. Once the pellets were set, they were ready for combustion and measurements.
The varying ratios of sago and A. mangium in pellets resulted in differing strengths and weaknesses. Notably, the biofuel pellets with the highest bulk density were the 100% A. mangium pellets at 637kg/m³ while the lowest were the 100% sago pellets at607kg/m^3kg/m³. The pellets composed of 50% sago and 50% A. mangium had the highest durability out of all pellets because 50% of both materials was the calculated optimal blending ratio which results in the best particle bonding structure [13]. The 50% blend has the greatest potential out of the blends for the efficient.
Indonesia - Palm Oil
Indonesia is a resource rich country with many raw materials that can be used for both petrochemical and green energy production. However, the extraction of these materials have negative environmental and social impacts on the local communities these resources are taken from [14].
As the largest producer of palm oil, Indonesia has the existing infrastructure to collect the feedstock for biofuel and biodiesel production [15]. Two feedstocks of interest are combined palm oil mill effluent (POME) and crude palm oil. Combined POME has a consistently high demand overseas while local refiners with no incentive for other biodiesel use crude palm oil [16]. Both fuels from Indonesia’s palm have their own merits.
The oil extraction process from palm kernels takes place in a mill where other oils are extracted from seeds.
The extraction process includes grinding kernels, heating, and extracting oil with an expeller or solvent, followed by oil clarification via filtration or sedimentation [17]. Both POME and crude palm oil are produced by the process. This is because POME is a by-product of crude palm oil production [17]. In 2022, Indonesia produced about 2.5–3.37 tons of POME for every ton of crude palm oil. The palm oil mill effluent can be used to produce biogas while the crude palm oil gets used as feedstock.
Bio-hydrogen can be produced from the POME using fermentation, bio-photolysis, or bio-electrochemical systems. Fermentation uses bacteria to convert glucose in the wastewater into hydrogen [18]. Through this, Indonesia has succeeded in making even the by-products of green energy production sustainable.
POME contains high organic value and as a result, could be used for biogas production, opening up a new, relatively untapped renewable energy source for Indonesia [18]. Production of this biogas could reach 252,303 million liters by 2030, reducing CO₂ emissions by 70.1 million tons in Indonesia [18]. While green energy products are not always as sustainable or ethical as they may initially seem, innovations such as Indonesia’s efforts toward utilizing by-products for bioenergy demonstrates.
Obstacles
Despite clear benefits, several obstacles hinder widespread biofuel adoption. Feedstock availability is inconsistent due to variations in crop yield, moisture, and land use competition [19–22]. The conversion efficiency of oils and biomass to usable fuel remains sensitive to temperature, pressure, and catalyst conditions, which increases cost and limits scalability [23,24].
Many biofuels face economic challenges when compared with fossil fuels because of limited infrastructure and low demand. In countries dependent on agriculture, large scale biofuel cultivation can also disrupt food supply chains and raise ethical concerns about resource allocation [24].
Environmental tradeoffs such as deforestation for palm cultivation and emission releases from inefficient conversion further complicate sustainability claims. These issues indicate that while biofuels have technical promise, social and industrial frameworks must advance before they can replace conventional fuels.
Future outlook
Future development of biofuels will depend on innovation in feedstock selection, process optimisation, and waste management. Genetic and enzymatic improvements in oilseed crops may enhance yield without increasing land use, while catalytic and fermentation technologies will continue to refine conversion pathways.
Expanding biorefinery models that integrate multiple products such as biodiesel, biogas, and biohydrogen can increase profitability and reduce waste. Collaboration between government, industry, and academia will be essential for establishing policy incentives, infrastructure investment, and standardized quality control. As developing nations continue to refine these processes, biofuels are expected to play a larger role in global energy transition. A coordinated approach to efficiency, sustainability, and policy enforcement will determine how quickly biofuels evolve from supplemental blends to dominant renewable energy sources.
Conclusion
India’s development of fatty acid methyl esters from pongamia seeds offers an efficient liquid biofuel alternative [6]. Malaysia’s pelletisation of sago bark and Acacia mangium logs produces solid biofuel pellets with improved durability and energy content [13]. Indonesia utilizes palm oil and its by-products for bio-hydrogen and biogas production, turning waste into renewable energy sources [18].
These recent innovations across the globe illustrate the potential of biofuels. Currently biofuels are only being blended with fossil fuels, but the overreliance on petrochemical fuels lacks sustainability.
Therefore, the future of the globe must be green. Biofuels hold an untapped range of abundant raw materials that can be used for energy production. The underutilization of biofuels means there is still more raw material with unique properties such as fuel to be found. More biofuel research is crucial for ensuring a viable and green future.

Biographies
Raj Shah- Dr. Raj Shah is a Director at Koehler Instrument Company in New York, where he has worked for the last 25 plus years. The Energy Institute and The Royal Society of Chemistry. An ASTM Eagle award recipient, Dr. Shah recently coedited the bestseller, “Fuels and Lubricants handbook”, details of which are available at ASTM’s Long-awaited Fuels and Lubricants Handbook https://bit.ly/3u2e6GY.
Mathew Stephen Roshan- Mathew Stephen Roshan is an undergraduate student in Chemical and Molecular Engineering at Stony Brook University
Caroline Neuer- Caroline Neuer is a Chemical & Molecular Engineering Undergraduate Student at Stony Brook University working as an intern under Dr. Raj Shah studying alternate green energy and is a member of the SBU chapter of the AIChE as well as the Society of Women Engineers. 
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